Dr. Darlene Howard, Davis Family Distinguished Professor of Psychology at Georgetown University, investigates how the human mind absorbs subtle patterns and learns about the world indirectly in the article Implicit Learning: A New Frontier in Cognitive Psychology.
Summary:
Howard and her colleagues in the Cognitive Aging Lab seek to unlock the secrets of implicit learning. Borrowing observation techniques from other areas of research and developing their own behavioral measurements, Howard and her collaborators use carefully designed testing situations to monitor the outcomes of the indirect absorption of patterns and information, allowing researchers to effectively quantify implicit learning
Questions Howard was looking to answer:
Two major questions for this population are :
1) Whether implicit learning declines with age and
2) How implicit learning can be facilitated at all ages.
Imagine a person in their seventies selling their home of 30 years and moving to a retirement home. In the familiar home, they know from experience how to operate the oven and how to get from their bedroom to the bathroom. How quickly can they adjust in the new retirement home? What is the best way for them to effectively familiarize themselves with their new environment? Howard’s research can help reveal the underlying mechanisms of such learning to determine not only how the learning takes place but whether there may be more effective ways of teaching people essential tasks.
Initially, Howard’s research and other studies suggested that during healthy aging declarative, conscious memory declined, while implicit learning was spared. Consider a comparison between a young college student and an elderly person, both moving to a new home: The elderly person is likely to have a hard time memorizing her new phone number while the college student can remember it easily. This is because the task of declarative learning—explicitly memorizing the phone number—is often more difficult for the elderly.
However, both the college student and the elderly person, after a few days of routine, would likely have little trouble going to the correct cabinet to retrieve a water glass without giving it much thought. At least this would be so if implicit learning didn’t decline with aging.
Conclusion:
Howard’s more recent work indicates that while some forms of implicit learning are spared during aging, others are not. Her research has shown that there are multiple forms of implicit learning relying on different brain regions, which may be affected differently by aging. Howard and her collaborators are working to understand how aging affects these different learning systems.
The long-range implications of her research could lead to methods of teaching and learning that effectively help aging persons impaired by aging-induced neurological changes. “We want to understand which implicit learning systems are spared with aging and which aren’t,” Howard says of her intention. “We are working to understand how these are related to the changes in the brain that occur in the course of aging. And most important, we want eventually to figure out what can be done to help people of all ages adapt to changing environments, because this is an essential component of successful aging.”
Tuesday, May 4, 2010
Game design and learning: a conjectural analysis of how massively multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs) foster intrinsic motivation
In this scholarly article published in 2007, the author - Michele Dickey provides an analysis of how the structure of massively multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs) might influence the design of interactive learning and game based learning environments.
The author primarily looks at how "character design" and "narrative environment" - the two key elements of MMORPGs can support intrinsic motivation which might foster learning.
The assumption behind interactive learning environments is that, learning happens by interacting with information, tools and materials as well as by collaborating with other learners. The author states that computer / video games fundamentally have these features and MMORPGs (such as World of Warcraft, ToonTown) more so; because MMORPGs are persistent, networked, interactive narrative environments where players collaborate, strategize, plan and interact with objects, resources and other players.
Character Design:
By having the freedom to choose a character and determine its specific traits and characters, the author argues (by referencing several research studies) that it is essentially a form of role playing in a simulated environment. To quote a 1995 study on Multi-User Dungeons - predecessor to MMORPGs "virtual environments allow users to experiment in a safe, non-threatening environment and to expand, explore and reflect on different aspects of themselves".
The players also have an emotional connection to their characters as they invest significant amounts of time and make critical choices in developing their character (by the addition of skills, capabilities or adornments) which is in a sense, the player taking on a particular role.
Narrative environment:
The narrative environment in a MMORPG fosters exploration. Players continually explore various regions to find quest givers, characters, objects and tools related to completing small quests which can help them advance in the game. Players often make critical choices about the most economical way to complete a variety of small quests. The author goes on to list the various types of small quests ( such as "Collection quests", "Bounty quests") and how they aid in acquiring knowledge and learning.
To illustrate:
Research has identified and characterized four different types of knowledge:
- Declarative: Knowledge of facts, data and principles
- Procedural: Knowledge of how to perform a task / action / process
- Strategic: Awareness of applying knowledge, principles and experiences to various situations
- Metacognitive: Reflection and regulation of one's thinking during an activity
The author explains that a bounty quest for instance - which requires the player / players to defeat a character / characters are often challenging and requires players to analyze their character's strengths and weaknesses and to balance those against the environmental factors they may encounter - helps in gaining "strategic knowledge".
In a bounty quest the player continuously applies the knowledge gained from exploration / interaction or experience from past quests to succeed in this new situation thus enhancing strategic knowledge.
The author goes on to explain in detail the various types of knowledge and their equivalent quest types in her article which, can be accessed here.
Comments:
This article is well researched and does make a solid case for using MMORPGs as a tool for learning. The way the author has classified the different types of quests and mapped them to knowledge domains is particularly interesting and does corroborate personal experiences with such games.
Apart from all this, MMORPGs as a tool for learning would certainly be more fun.
Teaching Smart People How to Learn
In this article, the author Chris Argyris puts it simply, "because many professionals are almost always successful at what they do, they rarely experience failure. And because they have rarely failed, they have never learned how to learn from failure." He basically says that when these individuals are wrong, they become defensive, screen out criticism, and blame anyone and everyone but themselves. In short, their ability to learn shuts down precisely at the moment they need it the most.
Getting people to learn is largely a matter of motivation. When people have the right attitudes and commitment, learning automatically follows. So companies focus on creating new organizational structures—compensation programs, performance reviews, corporate cultures, and the like—that are designed to create motivated and committed employees.
For 15 years, the author of this article studied professionals and their learning habits. He determined that as long as efforts at learning and change focused on external organizational factors - such as job redesign, compensation programs, performance review, and leadership training—the professionals were enthusiastically learning. However, as soon as the focus turned to the professional's own performance, their motivation and commitment to excellence was gone. Argyris determined that this occurred because the professionals were threatened by the prospect of critically examining their own role in the organization, making them feel vulnerable. This resulted in defensive reasoning.
To counter defensive reasoning, Argyris suggests the professionals need to learn how to reason productively. People can be taught how to recognize the reasoning they use when they design and implement their actions. They can begin to identify the inconsistencies between their perceived and actual theories of action. Once they have an understanding of what they do and how they do it, the professionals will learn more efficiently and effectively.
Source: http://pds8.egloos.com/pds/200805/20/87/chris_argyris_learning.pdf
Getting people to learn is largely a matter of motivation. When people have the right attitudes and commitment, learning automatically follows. So companies focus on creating new organizational structures—compensation programs, performance reviews, corporate cultures, and the like—that are designed to create motivated and committed employees.
For 15 years, the author of this article studied professionals and their learning habits. He determined that as long as efforts at learning and change focused on external organizational factors - such as job redesign, compensation programs, performance review, and leadership training—the professionals were enthusiastically learning. However, as soon as the focus turned to the professional's own performance, their motivation and commitment to excellence was gone. Argyris determined that this occurred because the professionals were threatened by the prospect of critically examining their own role in the organization, making them feel vulnerable. This resulted in defensive reasoning.
To counter defensive reasoning, Argyris suggests the professionals need to learn how to reason productively. People can be taught how to recognize the reasoning they use when they design and implement their actions. They can begin to identify the inconsistencies between their perceived and actual theories of action. Once they have an understanding of what they do and how they do it, the professionals will learn more efficiently and effectively.
Source: http://pds8.egloos.com/pds/200805/20/87/chris_argyris_learning.pdf
The effects of active learning on students' memories for course content
This article published in Active Learning in Higher Education determines active learning techniques and their relation to the course content retained by students in a higher education setting. Two studies performed by the author identified that students cited memory of activities which actively engaged them and forced them to reflect upon concepts.
Study 1
A group of 250 undergraduate students enrolled in three different courses at private Midwestern liberal arts college were provided with a survey on the last day of class. Participants were enrolled in introductory courses. The participants were instructed to write down ten things they remembered from the course. The survey instructed the participants to freely report anything that they remembered. The survey was left anonymous. The participant responses were coded for their level of understanding and the frequencies were summarized. Results showed that the videos and in class active exercises were most cited in the participant free responses.
Study 2
A group of 64 undergraduate students enrolled in three different courses at private Midwestern liberal arts college were provided with a survey on the last day of class. The participants were enrolled in advanced courses. The participants were instructed to write down ten things they remembered from the course. The survey instructed the participants to freely report anything that they remembered. The survey was not anonymous. The participant responses were coded for their level of understanding and the frequencies were summarized. Results showed that the videos and in class active exercises were most cited in the participant free responses just like those found in the introductory courses.
Source
The effects of active learning on students' memories for course content
Cherney, Isabelle D.
Active Learning in Higher Education, Jul 2008; vol. 9: pp. 152-171
Study 1
A group of 250 undergraduate students enrolled in three different courses at private Midwestern liberal arts college were provided with a survey on the last day of class. Participants were enrolled in introductory courses. The participants were instructed to write down ten things they remembered from the course. The survey instructed the participants to freely report anything that they remembered. The survey was left anonymous. The participant responses were coded for their level of understanding and the frequencies were summarized. Results showed that the videos and in class active exercises were most cited in the participant free responses.
Study 2
A group of 64 undergraduate students enrolled in three different courses at private Midwestern liberal arts college were provided with a survey on the last day of class. The participants were enrolled in advanced courses. The participants were instructed to write down ten things they remembered from the course. The survey instructed the participants to freely report anything that they remembered. The survey was not anonymous. The participant responses were coded for their level of understanding and the frequencies were summarized. Results showed that the videos and in class active exercises were most cited in the participant free responses just like those found in the introductory courses.
Source
The effects of active learning on students' memories for course content
Cherney, Isabelle D.
Active Learning in Higher Education, Jul 2008; vol. 9: pp. 152-171
Cultural Orientations and Collaborative Learning
Summary:
Collaborative learning is learning in which student input is sought during instruction. The use of class discussions and group projects is an example of this type of learning. Recent literature suggests that collaborative learning has advantages over a more traditional lecture presentation. The authors of this article explored whether collaborative learning was superior to traditional methods. They also wanted to know if collaborative learning is equally effective across students from all cultural learning orientations and across all learning styles. The authors defined cultural orientation as being either collectivist, or focused on the group, or individualistic with an emphais on the needs of the individual.
Method:
The authors gave a survey to 100 students enrolled in an introductory communication theory course during the end of the fall and spring terms at a university in Western NY. The courses were taught using a mix of 75% traditional lectures and 25% collaborative learning. The survey assessed student's cultural orientations, learning styles, and their reported level of satisfaction with the collaborative learning exercises. Experimentors also compared student grades on tests from the sections taught via collaboration to those from sections taught in a lecture format.
Results:
The results indicated that collaborative learning was more effective than lecture methods for students regardless of learning style or cultural orientation. However, the more individualistic students reported lower satisfaction levels with collaboration than their more collectivist peers. As lower student satisfaction resulted in lower group grades, it is important to try to improve class members' satisfaction during the learning process. The authors suggest ways to make collaborative learning more palatable to individulatistic participants by grouping students based on those that share the same cultural orientation, giving clear guidlines, and by assigning individual grades to each member of a group.
Source:
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3325/is_3_10/ai_n29308482
Collaborative learning is learning in which student input is sought during instruction. The use of class discussions and group projects is an example of this type of learning. Recent literature suggests that collaborative learning has advantages over a more traditional lecture presentation. The authors of this article explored whether collaborative learning was superior to traditional methods. They also wanted to know if collaborative learning is equally effective across students from all cultural learning orientations and across all learning styles. The authors defined cultural orientation as being either collectivist, or focused on the group, or individualistic with an emphais on the needs of the individual.
Method:
The authors gave a survey to 100 students enrolled in an introductory communication theory course during the end of the fall and spring terms at a university in Western NY. The courses were taught using a mix of 75% traditional lectures and 25% collaborative learning. The survey assessed student's cultural orientations, learning styles, and their reported level of satisfaction with the collaborative learning exercises. Experimentors also compared student grades on tests from the sections taught via collaboration to those from sections taught in a lecture format.
Results:
The results indicated that collaborative learning was more effective than lecture methods for students regardless of learning style or cultural orientation. However, the more individualistic students reported lower satisfaction levels with collaboration than their more collectivist peers. As lower student satisfaction resulted in lower group grades, it is important to try to improve class members' satisfaction during the learning process. The authors suggest ways to make collaborative learning more palatable to individulatistic participants by grouping students based on those that share the same cultural orientation, giving clear guidlines, and by assigning individual grades to each member of a group.
Source:
http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3325/is_3_10/ai_n29308482
Learning to Learn
This paper, written by professors Karl R. Wirth and Dexter Perkins, focuses on significant learning and its applications to learning in higher education and , more specifically, its applications to the field of geology.
In addition to being able to recall information and ideas, one also needs to be able to apply one's knowledge or skills to new situations; this is application. This includes learning to engage in new kinds of thinking (critical, creative, practical) as well as certain skills (communication, playing an instrument, etc.). The learning categories here are: foundational knowlege, application, integration, human dimension, caring, and learning how to learn.
Effective Learning and Learning Styles
The best learning occurs when students are engaged in active learning. Cooperative learning is an important component of active learning. The key step to effective learning is identifying your learning style. After that, you can improve learning by translating material from other modes into a mode that best fits you. Since there are many different ways of modeling learning, it is important to be aware of your own learning style preferences so that you can make the necessary adjustments to maximize your learning.
Strengths
In addition to being able to recall information and ideas, one also needs to be able to apply one's knowledge or skills to new situations; this is application. This includes learning to engage in new kinds of thinking (critical, creative, practical) as well as certain skills (communication, playing an instrument, etc.). The learning categories here are: foundational knowlege, application, integration, human dimension, caring, and learning how to learn.
Effective Learning and Learning Styles
The best learning occurs when students are engaged in active learning. Cooperative learning is an important component of active learning. The key step to effective learning is identifying your learning style. After that, you can improve learning by translating material from other modes into a mode that best fits you. Since there are many different ways of modeling learning, it is important to be aware of your own learning style preferences so that you can make the necessary adjustments to maximize your learning.
Strengths
- Aids in becoming an intentional learner - an integrative thinker who sees connections in seemingly disparate information to inform his/her decisions.
- Aids in becoming a self-directed learner - someone who is highly motivated, independent, and strives towards self-direction and autonomy
- Active learning improves student knowledge retention, conceptual understanding, engagement, and attitudes about learning.
- Cooperative learning improves individual achievement, metacognitive thought, willingness to assume difficult tasks, persistence, motivation, and transfer of learning to new situations.
- Learning improves brain function
Challenges
- Becoming/being an intentional learner takes deliberate effort and continual reflection.
Monday, May 3, 2010
More Effective Learning - A Simple Technique
Learning
Summary:
Steve Gillman, in an article on Buzzle.com (Intelligent Life on the Web), writes how current methods of learning maybe aren't the most effective ways to learn. The first method to improving learning is by teaching. Gillman writes that by teaching others, we grasp a better understanding of something ourselves.
Strengths:
Helps improve your learning of a topic
Weaknesses:
It may be tough to find people willing to listen/learn
It takes time to learn about a topic, and then teach it to others
Gillman then discusses how "vividly imagining" yourself teaching can improve your learning even more. By first teaching a friend about a topic you are trying to learn, you can gain a better understanding of the topic. If you then vividly imagine yourself teaching the topic you are learning about, you will become better at learning the topic.
Strengths:
Your vivid teaching lessons go faster than real ones and have less interruptions.
Link:
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/more-effective-learning-simple-technique.html
Summary:
Steve Gillman, in an article on Buzzle.com (Intelligent Life on the Web), writes how current methods of learning maybe aren't the most effective ways to learn. The first method to improving learning is by teaching. Gillman writes that by teaching others, we grasp a better understanding of something ourselves.
Strengths:
Helps improve your learning of a topic
Weaknesses:
It may be tough to find people willing to listen/learn
It takes time to learn about a topic, and then teach it to others
Gillman then discusses how "vividly imagining" yourself teaching can improve your learning even more. By first teaching a friend about a topic you are trying to learn, you can gain a better understanding of the topic. If you then vividly imagine yourself teaching the topic you are learning about, you will become better at learning the topic.
Strengths:
Your vivid teaching lessons go faster than real ones and have less interruptions.
Link:
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/more-effective-learning-simple-technique.html
Behavioral and Psychosocial Considerations in Intelligence Analysis: A Preliminary review of Literature on Critical Thinking Skills
This article is a review of published literature in the fields of psychology, education, and intelligence analysis to look for any information related to the link between critical thinking skills and an improvement in intelligence analysis. From the review, the 2nd LT Chin Ki Tam found that as of October 2008 there was very little information related to the link between critical thinking and the improvement of intelligence analysis. The problem begins, similar to intelligence itself, with a lack of one true definition of critical thinking.
Methods
In response to the tasking from the Air Combat Command that came of a January 2008 meeting at Langley Air Force Base, the 711 Human Performance Wing Continuous Learning Branch looked into existing literature in psychology, education, and intelligence. The goal was to combine the information to provide a picture of whether the teaching of critical thinking truly improves intelligence analysis.
Results
The results of this literature review show that there is no consensus on the definition of critical thinking nor is there a consensus on what exactly is a “critical thinking skill” and which skills a person should utilize to conduct critical thinking.
The results of a Delphi study conducted in Feb. 1988 to November 1989 show that six skills are necessary for critical thinking. They are: Interpretation, Analysis, Evaluation, Inference, Explanation, and Self-Regulation.
Beyond all the literature related to what exactly critical thinking is, only a few people have written about how critical thinking and intelligence analysis correlate. One of these authors is Dick Heuer in his book, Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. He writes about cognitive bias. He defines these biases as: selectivity bias, availability bias, absence of evidence bias, confirmation bias, overconfidence bias, oversensitivity to consistency bias, and discredited evidence bias as the biases that lead to flawed intelligence analysis.
In addition to all the information related to what critical thinking is and how it relates to intelligence analysis there is another problem of how people learn. The article talks about how people have different learning styles and that critical thinking in one domain in no necessarily transferable to another domain. Without tackling the problems associated with learning it is difficult to apply such thinking techniques to intelligence analysis.
Correlation and Current Intelligence Curriculum
Research has yet to be conducted to show whether or not critical thinking truly improves intelligence analysis however different agencies within the US Government have begun to institute programs designed to help with the development of critical thinking skills. The CIA, NSA, and DIA have all begun a training program for analysts designed to improve critical thinking skills. The most novel of which is DIA working to utilize gaming as a way to improve intelligence analysis however they only invested $2.6 million for the development of three games. This drastically limits the ability to be truly high quality learning tools when one considers that the average XBOX game costs between $3 million - $5 million to produce from start to finish and the average XBOX 360 or PS3 game costs around $10 million to produce. (Edwards, 2006)
Discussion
Although the intelligence community has invested heavily in the improvement of cognitive thinking skills, there is no evidence that directly links the improvement in these skills to the improvement of intelligence analysis. It would be a great help in the future if studies were designed to show whether there is an improvement. These studies would go a long way in justifying more or less money being put into the budgets of such training programs for future analysts.
Source:
Edwards, R. (2006, May 5). The economics of game publishing. Retrieved May 3, 2010, from IGN website: http://games.ign.com/articles/708/708972p1.html
Methods
In response to the tasking from the Air Combat Command that came of a January 2008 meeting at Langley Air Force Base, the 711 Human Performance Wing Continuous Learning Branch looked into existing literature in psychology, education, and intelligence. The goal was to combine the information to provide a picture of whether the teaching of critical thinking truly improves intelligence analysis.
Results
The results of this literature review show that there is no consensus on the definition of critical thinking nor is there a consensus on what exactly is a “critical thinking skill” and which skills a person should utilize to conduct critical thinking.
The results of a Delphi study conducted in Feb. 1988 to November 1989 show that six skills are necessary for critical thinking. They are: Interpretation, Analysis, Evaluation, Inference, Explanation, and Self-Regulation.
Beyond all the literature related to what exactly critical thinking is, only a few people have written about how critical thinking and intelligence analysis correlate. One of these authors is Dick Heuer in his book, Psychology of Intelligence Analysis. He writes about cognitive bias. He defines these biases as: selectivity bias, availability bias, absence of evidence bias, confirmation bias, overconfidence bias, oversensitivity to consistency bias, and discredited evidence bias as the biases that lead to flawed intelligence analysis.
In addition to all the information related to what critical thinking is and how it relates to intelligence analysis there is another problem of how people learn. The article talks about how people have different learning styles and that critical thinking in one domain in no necessarily transferable to another domain. Without tackling the problems associated with learning it is difficult to apply such thinking techniques to intelligence analysis.
Correlation and Current Intelligence Curriculum
Research has yet to be conducted to show whether or not critical thinking truly improves intelligence analysis however different agencies within the US Government have begun to institute programs designed to help with the development of critical thinking skills. The CIA, NSA, and DIA have all begun a training program for analysts designed to improve critical thinking skills. The most novel of which is DIA working to utilize gaming as a way to improve intelligence analysis however they only invested $2.6 million for the development of three games. This drastically limits the ability to be truly high quality learning tools when one considers that the average XBOX game costs between $3 million - $5 million to produce from start to finish and the average XBOX 360 or PS3 game costs around $10 million to produce. (Edwards, 2006)
Discussion
Although the intelligence community has invested heavily in the improvement of cognitive thinking skills, there is no evidence that directly links the improvement in these skills to the improvement of intelligence analysis. It would be a great help in the future if studies were designed to show whether there is an improvement. These studies would go a long way in justifying more or less money being put into the budgets of such training programs for future analysts.
Source:
Edwards, R. (2006, May 5). The economics of game publishing. Retrieved May 3, 2010, from IGN website: http://games.ign.com/articles/708/708972p1.html
Learning Techniques
A lot of work has been done over the past few decades about how people learn. This document suggests a list of techniques that may make learning more effective.
Principles
Principles
- You can learn anything if you have a goal that requires it.
- Learning how to learn is the core skill.
- Anyone can learn faster by structuring the information.
- Intelligence is not fixed.
- Knowledge and skills overcome obstacles.
- Everything to which you were paying attention, either consciously or unconsciously , will be remembered permanently.
There are a number of stages to learn:
The Right States of Mind
There are six aspects for this:
- Find a personal reason to want to learn this materials.
- Translate these reasons into motivation
- Find a way to make the materials relevant to you
- Have positive expectation
- Have a calm mind
A Variety of Ways of Inputs
- Play to your strengths in term of how you process information.
- Make a general outline of what you are learning.
- Ask what do I already know about this.
- Break the materials into small chucks.
- Summarise the material out loud
Exploring from different Angles
There are 7 type of intelligences:
- Linguistic intelligence-Describe the materials out lout.
- Logical-mathematical intelligence-Use a flowchart or diagram.
- Spatial intelligence-Make an image of the material.
- Musicale intelligence-Play background intelligence as you learn.
- Interpersonal intelligence-Teach someone else.
- Intrapersonal intelligence-ruminate on the material.
- Bodily intelligence-Use index cards.
Memorising
Decide to remember, take regular breaks, Review notes regularly, etc.
Showing you Know
Demonstrating to yourself that you really do understand and remember increases your learning.
Reviewing and Reflecting in the Process
After every learning session, review the process you follow.
Implicit sequence learning in a search task
The purpose of this study was to see how the selection process is affected by task demands; that everyday skills rely on implicit sequence learning where learning happens unintentionally and the effects are beyond the learners’ ability to report on exactly what they learned. The researchers’ intent was to investigate whether learning about a sequence of stimuli appearing as part of a complex scene can be different from responding to a single target.
Method
Participants were presented with eight digits distributed pseudo-randomly over 16 possible locations arranged on an invisible 4X4 matrix. The targets followed a sequence that learners could exploit to improve performance. The researchers compared sequence learning under this seemingly demanding task with two different control conditions in which the perceptual load was lower. In a first control group, perceptual load was decreased by removing the distracters, but the target appeared at the same variable locations, in order to analyze whether the spatial uncertainty could produce any effect independent from perceptual load.
In the second control group, the researchers removed both factors by presenting the targets alone at the center of the screen. Because the search conditions were expected to hinder the achievement of explicit learning, they arranged a known sequence rather than a probabilistic procedure.
Participants
A total of 90 students participated in the experiment and a total of 30 participants were assigned to each condition: central, variable location, and search.
The stimuli consisted of a set of colored digits over a grey background. Target stimuli were even numbers presented in random colors. In the central condition, the target was presented alone at the center of the screen. In the search condition, the target appeared on each trial at one of the 16 locations defined by an invisible 4X4matrix. The location of the target was decided pseudo-randomly on each trial, with the only constraint that all 16 possible locations should be sampled before any of them was repeated. The distracters were seven instances of the same odd number, randomly chosen for each trial from the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7. The seven distracters plus the target stimulus were colored and located pseudo-randomly, so that two of them were drawn in each possible color and two items were located at each one of the matrix quadrants. At the end of the experimental blocks, participants performed a cued generation task, designed to measure their ability to predict the more likely successor.
Results
The study showed that implicit sequence learning does not depend on the resources demanded by the selection task. The results indicate that implicit sequence learning is resistant to selection demands, and that presenting the targets at variable locations can be useful to control for the acquisition of explicit learning.
The full results of the experiment can be accessed through Academic Search Complete: Implicit sequence learning in a search task by Luis Jime´nez and Gustavo A. Va´zquez. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2008.
Sunday, May 2, 2010
Inductive Learning: Effective Media Training that Isn’t Boring
Found at: http://www.mindspace.net/about_us/in_the_news/PRNews-06162009.pdf
Inductive Learning: Effective Media Training that Isn’t Boring
By: Brent Diggins
PR Account Executive | Mindspace
Inductive learning, the process of learning through first-hand experience, is essential to producing an ingrained media training session that is fun for participants. Compared with deductive learning,learning through instructor “telling,” inductive learning has been proven in many academic studies to be a more effective teaching method, and is especially effective in short-term learning situations.Perhaps the best attribute of inductive learning is that the participation can be astoundingly fun,and everyone will appreciate that.
Benefits:
1) Practical—Today’s fast paced people
don’t want to be lectured to. They want to
actively participate and be hands-on. As
people are participating in a variety of simulated
exercises, they will be able to walk out
of the room and right into an interview.
2) Shared Learning—Unlike deductive
learning, an inductive media relations
program gives participants the opportunity
to learn from watching, critiquing and
analyzing others. Watching video of good,
bad and mixed-bag interviews under the
tutelage of a media trainer gives participants
the perspective of an interview they would
not have otherwise.
3) Fun—Actively participating in inductive
learning options like role playing, mock press
conferences and journalist roles makes media
training fun for participants. Further, putting
together an inductive program is creative,
fun and without boundaries.
Weaknesses:
1.)Can be time consuming
2.)Can potentially lead the audience astray from the topic if not properly monitored by an administrator.
Inductive Learning Techniques:
The best way to showcase a solid inductive learning-based
media training program is to combine your end-goals and media training rule-of-thumbs with your creativity. Here are three great inductive learning techniques and methods:
1) Role Play and Scenarios
2) Watch Video and Critique
3) Hold a Mock Pres Conference
Comments:
This article was written by a Public Relations Account Executive with a teacher or manager in mind. It gave techniques that one could use if there was an audience that needed to be kept engaged in the subject they were being presented, so that the audience could learn more effectively.
Inductive Learning: Effective Media Training that Isn’t Boring
By: Brent Diggins
PR Account Executive | Mindspace
Inductive learning, the process of learning through first-hand experience, is essential to producing an ingrained media training session that is fun for participants. Compared with deductive learning,learning through instructor “telling,” inductive learning has been proven in many academic studies to be a more effective teaching method, and is especially effective in short-term learning situations.Perhaps the best attribute of inductive learning is that the participation can be astoundingly fun,and everyone will appreciate that.
Benefits:
1) Practical—Today’s fast paced people
don’t want to be lectured to. They want to
actively participate and be hands-on. As
people are participating in a variety of simulated
exercises, they will be able to walk out
of the room and right into an interview.
2) Shared Learning—Unlike deductive
learning, an inductive media relations
program gives participants the opportunity
to learn from watching, critiquing and
analyzing others. Watching video of good,
bad and mixed-bag interviews under the
tutelage of a media trainer gives participants
the perspective of an interview they would
not have otherwise.
3) Fun—Actively participating in inductive
learning options like role playing, mock press
conferences and journalist roles makes media
training fun for participants. Further, putting
together an inductive program is creative,
fun and without boundaries.
Weaknesses:
1.)Can be time consuming
2.)Can potentially lead the audience astray from the topic if not properly monitored by an administrator.
Inductive Learning Techniques:
The best way to showcase a solid inductive learning-based
media training program is to combine your end-goals and media training rule-of-thumbs with your creativity. Here are three great inductive learning techniques and methods:
1) Role Play and Scenarios
2) Watch Video and Critique
3) Hold a Mock Pres Conference
Comments:
This article was written by a Public Relations Account Executive with a teacher or manager in mind. It gave techniques that one could use if there was an audience that needed to be kept engaged in the subject they were being presented, so that the audience could learn more effectively.
Thursday, April 29, 2010
Tuesday, April 27, 2010
Role-Play Training for Negotiators in Diverse Environments
Introduction
The author of this article opens up the discussion by citing facts of the ever increasing stakes for the hostage negotiator in today's complex world. In the wake of the Columbine shootings and the DC sniper events, hostage negotiators must be ever vigilant and better trained. Furthermore, the author states that "By using locations previously unfamiliar to team members and tactical units, commanders may decrease the anxiety associated with a particular environment while also role-playing in a realistic setting".
One Agency's Experience
The majority of the article focuses on one police department in Suffolk County, New York (located on Long Island). The Suffolk County Police Department (SCPD) "is training in a variety of locations and venues to understand and respond more quickly and effectively to a hostage or barricade incident". The SCPD notes that two of the most important factors for carrying out a successful hostage role-play are the planning involved and the chosen location.
In regards to planning, the SCPD says that by consulting with officials at the proposed site, Hostage Negotiation Team (HNT) supervisors can design and implement realistic role-play scenarios based on the unique threat environment. "Role-play scripts and scenarios are designed to provide the best and most realistic training within the limitations of time and personnel available."
Lastly in terms of location, the HNT has sought out sites that have the potential to be hostage situation sites. Some of the sites that the team has trained at include a bank slated for demolition, a local high school (during the summer months), the Suffolk County jail and correctional center, the medical center at the local VA, a university dormitory and a municipal park. All of the role-plays at each of these locations gave the negotiators an idea of how such events could transpire and what the difficulties would be in dealing with each specific situation.
Source
For any further information and for the results of the study, please see "Role Play Training for Negotiators in Diverse Environments" in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, written by James R Maher accessed through Academic Search Complete.
The author of this article opens up the discussion by citing facts of the ever increasing stakes for the hostage negotiator in today's complex world. In the wake of the Columbine shootings and the DC sniper events, hostage negotiators must be ever vigilant and better trained. Furthermore, the author states that "By using locations previously unfamiliar to team members and tactical units, commanders may decrease the anxiety associated with a particular environment while also role-playing in a realistic setting".
One Agency's Experience
The majority of the article focuses on one police department in Suffolk County, New York (located on Long Island). The Suffolk County Police Department (SCPD) "is training in a variety of locations and venues to understand and respond more quickly and effectively to a hostage or barricade incident". The SCPD notes that two of the most important factors for carrying out a successful hostage role-play are the planning involved and the chosen location.
In regards to planning, the SCPD says that by consulting with officials at the proposed site, Hostage Negotiation Team (HNT) supervisors can design and implement realistic role-play scenarios based on the unique threat environment. "Role-play scripts and scenarios are designed to provide the best and most realistic training within the limitations of time and personnel available."
Lastly in terms of location, the HNT has sought out sites that have the potential to be hostage situation sites. Some of the sites that the team has trained at include a bank slated for demolition, a local high school (during the summer months), the Suffolk County jail and correctional center, the medical center at the local VA, a university dormitory and a municipal park. All of the role-plays at each of these locations gave the negotiators an idea of how such events could transpire and what the difficulties would be in dealing with each specific situation.
Source
For any further information and for the results of the study, please see "Role Play Training for Negotiators in Diverse Environments" in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, written by James R Maher accessed through Academic Search Complete.
Role-Play For Medical Students Learning About Communication: Guidlines For Maximising Benefits
Debra Nestel and Tanya Tierney, the authors of this article, state that role-play is widely used as an educational method for learning about communication in medical education. Despite the wide use of role-play as a teaching method, there is little published evidence about its effectiveness. This paper explores students' experiences in role-play with the intent of producing guidelines for maximizing the benefits of this learning method.
Method
As part of their communication class, first-year undergraduate medical students participated in a role-play session. Both before and after the session, students were asked to complete questionnaires that asked about their experiences with role-play. Immediately following the role-playing exercise, the students answered similar questions in relation to the role-play activity they had just completed. Their answers were then analyzed.
Results
284 students completed the questionnaires. The results indicated that 63 (22.2%) had prior unhelpful experiences with role-play. However, most students (274; 96.5%) found this experience helpful. The students reported that this activity was helpful because it produced opportunities for observation, rehearsal and discussion, realistic roles and alignment of roles with other aspects of the curriculum. The students also reported that some of the unhelpful aspects of the exercise were factors that contributed to a lack of realism.
Conclusion
This study concluded that role-play was valued by students and that it helped them acquire better communication skills. Finally, the authors' proposed guidelines for effective role-play include adequate preparation, alignment of roles and tasks with level of practice, structured feedback guidelines, and acknowledgment of the importance of social interactions for learning.
Source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6920-7-3.pdf
Method
As part of their communication class, first-year undergraduate medical students participated in a role-play session. Both before and after the session, students were asked to complete questionnaires that asked about their experiences with role-play. Immediately following the role-playing exercise, the students answered similar questions in relation to the role-play activity they had just completed. Their answers were then analyzed.
Results
284 students completed the questionnaires. The results indicated that 63 (22.2%) had prior unhelpful experiences with role-play. However, most students (274; 96.5%) found this experience helpful. The students reported that this activity was helpful because it produced opportunities for observation, rehearsal and discussion, realistic roles and alignment of roles with other aspects of the curriculum. The students also reported that some of the unhelpful aspects of the exercise were factors that contributed to a lack of realism.
Conclusion
This study concluded that role-play was valued by students and that it helped them acquire better communication skills. Finally, the authors' proposed guidelines for effective role-play include adequate preparation, alignment of roles and tasks with level of practice, structured feedback guidelines, and acknowledgment of the importance of social interactions for learning.
Source: http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6920-7-3.pdf
Joint Civilian/National Guard Mass Casualty Exercise Provides Model for Preparedness Training
Following criticism of civilian and military response to hurricanes Katrina and Rita, members of the New York Air National Guard and the Central New York Medical Reserve Corps developed plans for a full scale exercise to determine their roles in a mass casualty situation. The Exercise was developed between October 2005 and March 2006. The event was held over two days, with the first day providing a series of partial drills for each section of the groups activities like triage. On the second day a full scale exercise including 350 individuals from over 25 agencies took place. The simulated mass casualty drill involved 32 victims contaminated in a hydrogen fluoride explosion. Following the drill three evaluation sessions were given; one by first responders, one by medical personnel, and a third by military personnel. The exercise was able to identify critical issues in joint military/civilian operations, and provide possible solutions to a number of the identified problems.
Strengths:
-Can identify critical issues in predeveloped plans
-Enables active critical thinking to solve encountered problems
-Can be tailored to fit a specific scale
-Engages participants effectively
Weaknesses:
-Effectiveness can be hampered by personnel not taking it seriously
-Increased possibility of risk to personnel in some scenarios
-May require a large amount of resources
-Requires extensive preparation
Source:
Grant, W., & Secreti, L. (2007). Joint Civilian/National Guard Mass Casualty Exercise Provides Model for Preparedness Training. Military Medicine, 172(8), 806-811. Retrieved from Military & Government Collection database.
Strengths:
-Can identify critical issues in predeveloped plans
-Enables active critical thinking to solve encountered problems
-Can be tailored to fit a specific scale
-Engages participants effectively
Weaknesses:
-Effectiveness can be hampered by personnel not taking it seriously
-Increased possibility of risk to personnel in some scenarios
-May require a large amount of resources
-Requires extensive preparation
Source:
Grant, W., & Secreti, L. (2007). Joint Civilian/National Guard Mass Casualty Exercise Provides Model for Preparedness Training. Military Medicine, 172(8), 806-811. Retrieved from Military & Government Collection database.
The Korean War: A Role-Play to Remember
Introduction
This article is written from a teacher's point of view with an educational context in which the class participates in a role play of the Korean War. The author first discusses the importance of the Korean War and talks about how it is one of the most overlooked American wars to date. She then points out the benefits of using role playing and elaborates on the technique. The author says that "role play generates student interest in the topic and allows students to physically, as well as mentally participate in their own learning".
The Role-Play Itself
Prior to engaging in the role-play, the author recommends stimulating a discussion on the concept of "war". In preparation for the lesson, the teacher should cut out and mount the script cards (found in the appendix of the article), create the role-play roles (U.N., U.S., North Korea, South Korea, etc.) and using masking tape outline the Korean peninsula on the floor of the classroom. The role-play parts that the students will be re-enacting include some historical figures such as Stalin, a KGB agent, France, General MacArthur and the Yalu River to name a few examples. The author recommends that the day of the activity, you as the teacher administer a pre-test to see what the students know about the Korean War. To actually accomplish the role-play the students should follow the directions on the cards but should not break any of the following rules:
1) Do not trade roles; roles are distributed randomly.
2) Attach your role to your chest so it can be seen.
3) When called to particpate read the card that you are given.
4) Read loudly enough so everyone can hear.
Following the role-play the author recommends administering a post-test to see what the students have learned. Furthermore, she advises to conduct a class discussion to see what they thought about the role-play experience and to see what they learned!
Source
For any further information and for the results of the study, please see "The Korean War: A Role-Play to Remember" by Marjori M Krebs accessed through Academic Search Complete.
This article is written from a teacher's point of view with an educational context in which the class participates in a role play of the Korean War. The author first discusses the importance of the Korean War and talks about how it is one of the most overlooked American wars to date. She then points out the benefits of using role playing and elaborates on the technique. The author says that "role play generates student interest in the topic and allows students to physically, as well as mentally participate in their own learning".
The Role-Play Itself
Prior to engaging in the role-play, the author recommends stimulating a discussion on the concept of "war". In preparation for the lesson, the teacher should cut out and mount the script cards (found in the appendix of the article), create the role-play roles (U.N., U.S., North Korea, South Korea, etc.) and using masking tape outline the Korean peninsula on the floor of the classroom. The role-play parts that the students will be re-enacting include some historical figures such as Stalin, a KGB agent, France, General MacArthur and the Yalu River to name a few examples. The author recommends that the day of the activity, you as the teacher administer a pre-test to see what the students know about the Korean War. To actually accomplish the role-play the students should follow the directions on the cards but should not break any of the following rules:
1) Do not trade roles; roles are distributed randomly.
2) Attach your role to your chest so it can be seen.
3) When called to particpate read the card that you are given.
4) Read loudly enough so everyone can hear.
Following the role-play the author recommends administering a post-test to see what the students have learned. Furthermore, she advises to conduct a class discussion to see what they thought about the role-play experience and to see what they learned!
Source
For any further information and for the results of the study, please see "The Korean War: A Role-Play to Remember" by Marjori M Krebs accessed through Academic Search Complete.
DECISIONS, DECISIONS! A Genetics Role-playing Activity
Role Playing
Summary:
Sharon Nelson of Waunakee High School in Wisconsin published a role playing scenario she used for her high school students. The scenario is about the "3 P's of science", as Nelson writes; "problem posing, problem solving, and peer persuasion." She briefly discusses the purpose of the role play, and the procedure in which to do it.
In the procedure she says "students will be assigned to work in groups of 2-5, at the instructor's discretion. Students will then choose a scenario for role playing. Their job is to research any and all information pertinent to their situation. Students may divide the roles in any way they see fit (one may choose to assume the role of parent, another the role of doctor, etc.) Once they have the necessary information, they must make some decisions regarding their situation, based on the bioethical issues involved. In addition to a 5-10 minute oral presentation, students must, with their group members, turn in one written report."
She then lists the possible scenarios the students can choose from. All the scenarios are relatively short and to the point. An example of one is...
You have hemophilia; you and your spouse would like to have children. You are referred to a genetic counselor.
Income: You just lost your job due to missing so many days of work for hospital stays. Wife's income as teacher's aide: $18,000.
Insurance: none
Weaknesses:
Very lengthy on preparation
Link
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/ATG/data/released/0350-SharonNelson/index.php
Summary:
Sharon Nelson of Waunakee High School in Wisconsin published a role playing scenario she used for her high school students. The scenario is about the "3 P's of science", as Nelson writes; "problem posing, problem solving, and peer persuasion." She briefly discusses the purpose of the role play, and the procedure in which to do it.
In the procedure she says "students will be assigned to work in groups of 2-5, at the instructor's discretion. Students will then choose a scenario for role playing. Their job is to research any and all information pertinent to their situation. Students may divide the roles in any way they see fit (one may choose to assume the role of parent, another the role of doctor, etc.) Once they have the necessary information, they must make some decisions regarding their situation, based on the bioethical issues involved. In addition to a 5-10 minute oral presentation, students must, with their group members, turn in one written report."
She then lists the possible scenarios the students can choose from. All the scenarios are relatively short and to the point. An example of one is...
You have hemophilia; you and your spouse would like to have children. You are referred to a genetic counselor.
Income: You just lost your job due to missing so many days of work for hospital stays. Wife's income as teacher's aide: $18,000.
Insurance: none
Weaknesses:
Very lengthy on preparation
Link
http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/ATG/data/released/0350-SharonNelson/index.php
Monday, April 26, 2010
Role Playing: Applications in Hostage and Crisis Negotiation Skills Training
This article provides an overview of various applications of the role playing are used by the FBI as part of their crisis negotiation training. The article states that role playing is a recognized and successful tool in behavioral assessment, which encourages the application of the technique. In crisis negotiation role playing, participants develop critical active listening skills commonly used to resolve crisis situations. The article highlights a number of role playing tests and activities performed by the FBI. Additionally it highlights a possible future trend in digital applications to crisis negotiation. Validation for the method is limited to studies indicating increased abilities among subject who had undergone extensive role playing.
Types of Role Playing Activities:
-Table top
-Functional
-Partial/Full scale
Strengths:
-Allowed for development of critical skills in a controlled environment
-Enabled critical feedback from supervisor
-provides an engaging learning environment.
-Identifies potential weaknesses
Limitations:
-Cannot account for all real world issues
-Requires a capable confederate force
-Limited field validation (in crisis negotiation)
-Require extensive resources for full scale exercise
Source:
Role Playing: Applications in Hostage and Crisis Negotiation Skills Training
Van Hasselt, Vincent B., Romano, Stephen J., Vecchi, Gregory M.
Behav Modif, Mar 2008; vol. 32: pp. 248-263
Types of Role Playing Activities:
-Table top
-Functional
-Partial/Full scale
Strengths:
-Allowed for development of critical skills in a controlled environment
-Enabled critical feedback from supervisor
-provides an engaging learning environment.
-Identifies potential weaknesses
Limitations:
-Cannot account for all real world issues
-Requires a capable confederate force
-Limited field validation (in crisis negotiation)
-Require extensive resources for full scale exercise
Source:
Role Playing: Applications in Hostage and Crisis Negotiation Skills Training
Van Hasselt, Vincent B., Romano, Stephen J., Vecchi, Gregory M.
Behav Modif, Mar 2008; vol. 32: pp. 248-263
Pre-managerial Business Education: a role for role-plays?
This article looks at the value of role playing into an undergraduate business curriculum. The author contends that those with limited or zero management experience can benefit greatly from a unique perspective on management challenges and from simulating aspects of interaction and decision-making in organizational settings.
Role playing defined
Role-playing has been used and continues to be employed as a tool to facilitate
training in vocational and interpersonal skills and as a method of active learning in
educational and commercial settings. Though there is no single type of role-played
exercise, the term is best applied where the teaching and learning experience rests
with a form of `as-if’ experimentation.
Strengths
• A opportunity for active learning in a safe, low-risk environment
• Can be applied to many different vocations
• Advance subject-based learning
• Develop a range of transferable skills, qualities and competencies
Weaknesses
• Emotionally and intellectually demanding
• The absence of training in role-play disciplines can lead to `under-play’, where the participant’s inability hinders role development, or to `over-play’, where the participant exaggerates or caricatures their part
• Inability of some role-players to effectively participate due to anxiety or dislike of a given role
• Can be difficult to manage or facilitate
How-To (as applied to the business curriculum for this study)
1.) Begin with a historical background and basic understanding of the business concepts/topics at hand.
2.) Determine the teams/groups
3.) Define the roles of the members of the group
4.) Establish the topic to role play
5.) Actively role play
6.) Discuss results and give feedback
This article was accessed through Academic Search Complete through Mercyhurst College libraries: "Pre-managerial Business Education: a role for role-plays?" By Simon A. Mercado
Role playing defined
Role-playing has been used and continues to be employed as a tool to facilitate
training in vocational and interpersonal skills and as a method of active learning in
educational and commercial settings. Though there is no single type of role-played
exercise, the term is best applied where the teaching and learning experience rests
with a form of `as-if’ experimentation.
Strengths
• A opportunity for active learning in a safe, low-risk environment
• Can be applied to many different vocations
• Advance subject-based learning
• Develop a range of transferable skills, qualities and competencies
Weaknesses
• Emotionally and intellectually demanding
• The absence of training in role-play disciplines can lead to `under-play’, where the participant’s inability hinders role development, or to `over-play’, where the participant exaggerates or caricatures their part
• Inability of some role-players to effectively participate due to anxiety or dislike of a given role
• Can be difficult to manage or facilitate
How-To (as applied to the business curriculum for this study)
1.) Begin with a historical background and basic understanding of the business concepts/topics at hand.
2.) Determine the teams/groups
3.) Define the roles of the members of the group
4.) Establish the topic to role play
5.) Actively role play
6.) Discuss results and give feedback
This article was accessed through Academic Search Complete through Mercyhurst College libraries: "Pre-managerial Business Education: a role for role-plays?" By Simon A. Mercado
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